At present, the structure of power systems is greatly changing due to the penetration of decentralized generations. Although they encompass a high flexibility potential, their large-scale penetration interferes with the power system operation at all voltage levels. To get rid of this flaw and exploit their flexibility, different concepts like Virtual Power Plants, Microgrids and Cellular Approach have been introduced but still no solution is in sight. Under these conditions, it seems quite intriguing to find out whether these concepts are likely to offer a complete solution or not. This paper presents ten criteria to assess the complete Smart Grid solution and introduces a comprehensive evaluation system based on cloud-charts. The paper looks into the already existing solutions, which are respectively based on Virtual Power Plants, Microgrids and Cellular Approach concepts. The investigations have shown that none of these solutions meets all criteria necessary for a complete Smart Grid solution. Even a combination of different criteria fails to yield the desired results.
KeywordsAssessment SystemCellular ApproachEvaluation CriteriaMicrogridsSmart GridVirtual Power Plants
Bacon, R.W. (1995) Privatization and Reform in the Global Electricity Supply Industry. Energy and the Environment, 20, 119-143.
Cardella, J.B., Hittb, C.C. and Hogan, W.W. (1997) Market Power and Strategic Interaction in Electricity Networks. Resource and Energy Economics, 19, 109-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0928-7655(97)00006-7
European Commission (2016) Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Promotion of the Use of Energy from Renewable Sources. https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/1_en_act_part1_v7_1.pdf
Fleischmann, D. (2016) Renewable Energy Was 16.9 Percent of US Electric Generation in the First Half of 2016. http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/08/renewable-en ergy-was-16-9-percent-of-u-s-electric-generation-in-the-first-half-of-2016.html
Clean Energy Council (2015) Clean Energy Australia Report. https://www.cleanenergycouncil.org.au/policy-advocacy/reports/clean-e nergy-australia-report.html
Chu, J. (2015) China’s Fast Track to a Renewable Future. https://www.theclimategroup.org/sites/default/files/archive/files/RE10 0-China-analysis.pdf
Barker, P.P. and de Mello, R.W. (2000) Determining the Impact of Distributed Generation on Power Systems: Part1—Radial Distribution Systems. Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting, Seattle, 16-20 July 2000, 1645-1656. https://doi.org/10.1109/pess.2000.868775
Ackermann, T., Anderson, G., Soder, L. (2001) Distributed Generation: A Definition. Electric Power System Research, 57, 195-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7796(01)00101-8
El-Khattam, W. and Salama, M.M.A. (2004) Distributed Generation Technologies, Definitions and Benefits. Electric Power Systems Research, 71, 119-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2004.01.006
Owens, B. (2014) The Rise of Distributed Power. https://www.ge.com/sites/default/files/2014%2002%20Rise%20of%20 Distributed%20Power.pdf
Lund, P. (2007) The Danish Cell Project—Part 1: Background and General Approach. Proceedings of the IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 1 June 2007, Tampa, 24-28.
Schafer, P., Vennegeerts, H., Krahl, S. and Moser, S.A. (2015) Derivation of Recommendations for the Future Reactive Power Exchange at the Interface between Distribution and Transmission Grid. Proceedings of the 23rd Conference and Exhibition on Electricity Distribution, CIRED, Lyon, 15-18 June 2015, 1-5.
Martensen, N., Kley, H., Cherian, S., Pacific, O. and Lund, P. (2009) The Cell Controller Pilot Project: Testing a Smart Distribution Grid in Denmark. http://www.gridwiseac.org/pdfs/forum_papers09/kley.pdf
Ilo,A., Gawlik, W., Schaffer, W. and Eichler, R. (2015) Uncontrolled Reactive Power Flow Due to Local Control of Distributed Generators. Proceedings of the 23rd Conference and Exhibition on Electricity Distribution, CIRED, Lyon, 15-18 June 2015, 1-5.
Prata, R.A. (2006) Impact of Distributed Generation Connection with Distribution Grids—Two Case-Studies. IEEE in Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 19, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1109/pes.2006.1709465
Hidayatullah, N.A., Paracha, Z.J. and Kalam, A. (2009) Impacts of Distributed Generation on Smart Grid. Proceedings of the International Conference of Electrical Energy and Industrial Electronic System, Penang, 7-8 December 2009, 218-221.
Kerber, G., Witzmann, R. and Sappl, H. (2009) Voltage Limitation by Autonomous Reactive Power Control of Grid Connected Photovoltaic Inverters. Proceedings of Conference on Compatibility and Power Electronics, Badajoz, 20-22 May, 129-133.
Dielmann, K. and Veiden, A. (2003) Virtual Power Plants (VPP) A New Perspective for Energy Generation? Modern Technique and Technologies, Tomsk, 7-13 April 2003, 18-20.
Bignucolo, F., Caldon, R., Prandoni, V., Spelta, S. and Vezzola, M. (2006) The Voltage Control on MV Distribution Networks with Aggregated DG Units (VPP). Proceedings of the 41st International Universities Power Engineering Conference, New- castle, 6-8 September 2006, 187-192. https://doi.org/10.1109/UPEC.2006.367741
Othman, M.M., Hegazy, Y.G. and Abdelaziz, A.Y. (2015) A Review of Virtual Power Plant Definitions, Components, Framework and Optimization. International Electrical Engineering Journal, 6, 2010-2024.
Plancke, G., Vos, K.D., Belmans, R. and Delnooz, A. (2015) Virtual Power Plants: Definition Applications and Barriers to the Implementation in the Distribution System. Proceedings of 12th International Conference on the European Energy Market, Lisbon, 20-22 May 2015, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1109/eem.2015.7216693
El-Bakari, K. and Kling, W.L. (2010) Virtual Power Plants: An Answer to Increasing Distributed Generation. Proceedings of Innovative Smart Grids Technologies Conference Europe, Gothenburg, 10-13 October 2010, 1-7.
Kieny, C., Berseneff, B., Hadjsaid, N., Besanger, Y. and Maire, J. (2009) On the Con- cept and the Interest of Virtual Power Plant: Some Results from the European Pro- ject FENIX. Proceedings of Power & Energy Society General Meeting, Calgary, 26- 30 July 2009, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1109/pes.2009.5275526
Olivares, D.E., et al. (2014) Trends in Microgrid Control. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grids, 5, 1905-1919. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2013.2295514
Dimeas, A.L. and Hatziargyriou, N.D. (2005) Operation of a Multiagent System for Microgrid Control. IEEE Transaction on Power Systems, 20, 1447-1455. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2005.852060
Zhu, T., et al. (2013) Sharing Renewable Energy in Smart Microgrids. Proceedings of International Conference on Cyber-Physical Systems, Philadelphia, 8-11 April 2013, 219-228. https://doi.org/10.1145/2502524.2502554
Doolla, S. and Priolkar, J. (2011) Analysis of Frequency Control in Isolated Microgrids. Proceedings of IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies, Kollam, 1-3 December 2011, 1-6.
Lasseter, R.H., et al. (2002) The CERTS Microgrid Concept. White Paper for Trans- mission Reliability Program. Office of Power Technologies, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington DC, 1-27.
Soshinskaya, M., et al. (2014) Microgrids: Experiences, Barriers and Success Factors. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 40, 659-672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.198
Buchholz, B., Nestle, D. and Kiessling, A. (2009) Individual Customers’ Influence on the Operation of Virtual Power Plant. Proceedings of IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting, Calgary, 26-30 July 2009, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1109/pes.2009.5275401
Benz, T., et al. (2015) The Cellular Approach. https://shop.vde.com/de/copy-of-vde-studie-der-zellulare-ansatz
KieBling, A. (2013) Beitrage von moma zur Transformation des Energiesystems für Nachhaltigkeit, Beteiligung, Regionalitat und Verbundheit. Modellstadt Mannheim (moma), Projekt Abschlussbericht. https://www.ifeu.de/energie/pdf/moma_Abschlussbericht_ak_V10_1_public.pdf
Kleineidam, G., Krasser, M. and Reischback, M. (2016) The Cellularapproach: Smart Energyregion Wunsiedel. Test Bed for Smart Grid, Smart Metering and Smart Home Solutions. Electrical Engineering, 4, 1-6. https://www.springerprofessional.de/the-cellular-approach-smart-energy -region-wunsiedel-testbed-for-/10701984
Schiller, C. and Fassmann, S. (2010) The Smart Micro Grid: It Challenges for Energy Distribution Grid Operators. International Business Machine, New York, 36-42. https://www.smartgrid.gov/files/The_Smart_Micro_Grid_IT_Challenges_fo r_Energy_Distribution_G_201002.pdf
McDaniel, P. and McLaughlin, S. (2009) Security and Privacy Challenges in the Smart Grid. IEEE Security Privacy, 7, 75-77. https://doi.org/10.1109/MSP.2009.76
Myrda, P. (2009) Smart Grid Enabled Asset Management. Electric Power Research Institute, Paolo Alto.
European Commission, Directorate-General for Energy (2011) Smart Grid Man- date. Standardization Mandate to European Standardization Organizations to Support European Smart Grid Deployment. European Commission, Brussels.
German Association of Energy and Water Industries (2013) BDEW Roadmap-Realistic-Steps for the Implementation of Smart Grids in Germany, German Association of Energy and Water Industries, Berlin. https://www.bdew.de/internet.nsf/id/816417E68269AECEC1257A1E004 5E51C/$file/Endversion_BDEW-Roadmap_englisch.pdf
Bollen, M. (2011) The Smart Grid—Adapting the Power System to the New Challenges. Morgan and Claypool Publishers, San Francisco.
Vaahedi, E. (2014) Practical Power System Operation, John Wiley & Sons, New York. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118915110
John, M. and Parfomak, P. (2004) Critical Infrastructure and Key Assets: Definition and Identification. Resources, Science & Industry Division, Library of Congress, Washington DC. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/RL32631.pdf
Pudjianto, D., Ramsay, C. and Strbac, G. (2007) Virtual Power Plant and System Integration of Distributed Energy Resources. IET Renewable Power Generation, 1, 10-16. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-rpg:20060023
Taft, J. and Martini, P.D. (2012) Ultra Large-Scale Power System Control Architecture, a Strategic Framework for Integrating Advanced Grid Functionality. http://www.cisco.com/web/strategy/docs/energy/control_architecture.pdf
Moslehi, K. and Kumar, R.A. (2010) Reliability Perspective of the Smart Grid. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 1, 57-64. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2010.2046346
Grijalva, S. and Tariq, M.U. (2011) Prosumer-Based Smart Grid Architecture En- ables a Flat, Sustainable Electricity Industry. Proceedings of Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Conference, Anaheim, 17-19 January 2011, 1-6. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=5759167
Bose, A. (2010) Smart Transmission Grid Applications and Their Supporting Infrastructure. IEEE transactions on Smart Grid, 1, 11-19. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2010.2044899
Gallagher, J.T. (2014) Moving towards Utility 2.0-New York State and the U.S.. Proceedings of Eurelectric Smart Grid Projects Academy, 6th Workshop: Smart Distribution Management, Brussels, 24 September 2014, 17-26. http://www.eurelectric.org/media/153323/workshop6_presentations.pdf
Saad, W., et al. (2012) Game Theoretic Methods for the Smart Grid-An Overview of Microgrids Systems, Demand-Side Management, and Smart Grid Communications. IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, 29, 86-105. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=6279592 https://doi.org/10.1109/MSP.2012.2186410
Wang, Z., Yang, K. and Wang, X. (2013) Privacy-Preserving Energy Scheduling in Microgrid Systems. IEEE transactions on Smart Grid, 4, 1810-1820. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2013.2274466
Keeney, R.L. and Gregory, R.S. (2005) Selecting Attributes to Measure the Achieve- ment of Objectives. Operations Research, 53, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.1040.0158