The advent of mass vaccination has saved millions of human lives and revolutionized the quality of life. Vaccination is currently one of the most cost effective ways of managing healthcare costs in both emerging and developed countries. Despite the long vaccine history and success, design and development of efficacious and safe vaccines has been tradi-tionally semi-empirical. This is mainly due to our limited understanding of vaccination mechanism and its influencing factors. The most important factor is arguably the type and concentration of vaccine adjuvants. Until recently, however, only one type of adjuvant – aluminum salts, had been widely used within licensed human vaccines in the US, even though a variety of novel adjuvants have been evaluated in the past few decades. This review summarizes the key adju-vants that have been evaluated in recent years with an intention to facilitate more efficient development of vaccine products to combat human diseases.
KeywordsAdjuvantAlumAluminum SaltsImmune Response
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A. Ghochikyan, M. Mkrtichyan, I. Petrushina, N. Movsesyan, A. Karapetyan, D. H. Cribbs, and M. G. Agadjanyan, “Prototype Alzheimer's disease epitope vaccine induced strong Th2-type anti-Abeta antibody response with Alum to Quil A adjuvant switch,” Vaccine, Vol. 24, No. 13, Mar 20 2006, pp. 2275-82. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.11.039
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N. Petrovsky, “Novel human polysaccharide adjuvants with dual Th1 and Th2 potentiating activity,” Vaccine, Vol. 24 Suppl 2, Apr 12 2006, pp. S2-26-9.
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C. R. Casella and T. C. Mitchell, “Putting endotoxin to work for us: monophosphoryl lipid A as a safe and effective vaccine adjuvant,” Cell Mol Life Sci, Vol. 65, No. 20, Oct 2008, pp. 3231-40. doi:10.1007/s00018-008-8228-6
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A. N. Courtney, P. N. Nehete, B. P. Nehete, P. Thapa, D. Zhou, and K. J. Sastry, “Alpha-galactosylceramide is an effective mucosal adjuvant for repeated intranasal or oral delivery of HIV peptide antigens,” Vaccine, Vol. 27, No. 25-26, May 26 2009, pp. 3335-41. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.01.083
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J. Hinkula, C. Devito, B. Zuber, R. Benthin, D. Ferreira, B. Wahren, and U. Schroder, “A novel DNA adjuvant, N3, enhances mucosal and systemic immune responses induced by HIV-1 DNA and peptide immunizations,” Vaccine, Vol. 24, No. 21, May 22 2006, pp. 4494-7. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.08.015
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Z. H. Jiang, W. A. Budzynski, D. Qiu, D. Yalamati, and R. R. Koganty, “Monophosphoryl lipid A analogues with varying 3-O-substitution: synthesis and potent adjuvant activity,” Carbohydr Res, Vol. 342, No. 6, May 7 2007, pp. 784-96. doi:10.1016/j.carres.2007.01.012
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H. Kayamuro, Y. Abe, Y. Yoshioka, K. Katayama, T. Yoshida, K. Yamashita, T. Yoshikawa, Y. Kawai, T. Mayumi, T. Hiroi, N. Itoh, K. Nagano, H. Kamada, S. Tsunoda, and Y. Tsutsumi, “Mutant TNF-alpha, mTNF-K90R, is a novel candidate adjuvant for a mucosal vaccine against HIV,” Pharmazie, Vol. 65, No. 4, Apr 2010, pp. 254-6.
L. Bracci, I. Canini, M. Venditti, M. Spada, S. Puzelli, I. Donatelli, F. Belardelli, and E. Proietti, “Type I IFN as a vaccine adjuvant for both systemic and mucosal vaccination against influenza virus,” Vaccine, Vol. 24 Suppl 2, Apr 12 2006, pp. S2-56-7.
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M. E. Miquilena-Colina, T. Lozano-Rodriguez, L. Garcia- ozo, A. Saez, P. Rizza, I. Capone, M. Rapicetta, P. Chionne, M. Capobianchi, M. Selleri, C. Castilletti, F. Belardelli, O. L. Iacono, and C. Garcia-Monzon, “Recombinant interferon-alpha2b improves immune response to hepatitis B vaccination in haemodialysis patients: results of a randomised clinical trial,” Vaccine, Vol. 27, No. 41, Sep 18 2009, pp. 5654-60. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.07.014
G. Cheng, X. Zhao, W. Yan, W. Wang, X. Zuo, K. Huang, Y. Liu, J. Chen, J. Wang, W. Cong, M. Liu, H. Gao, Y. Lu, and Z. Zheng, “Alpha interferon is a powerful adjuvant for a recombinant protein vaccine against foot-and-mouth disease virus in swine, and an effective stimulus of in vivo immune response,” Vaccine, Vol. 25, No. 28, Jul 9 2007, pp. 5199-208. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.04.089
L. Bracci, I. Canini, S. Puzelli, P. Sestili, M. Venditti, M. Spada, I. Donatelli, F. Belardelli, and E. Proietti, “Type I IFN is a powerful mucosal adjuvant for a selective intranasal vaccination against influenza virus in mice and affects antigen capture at mucosal level,” Vaccine, Vol. 23, No. 23, Apr 27 2005, pp. 2994-3004. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2004.12.006
R. B. Couch, R. L. Atmar, T. R. Cate, J. M. Quarles, W. A. Keitel, N. H. Arden, J. Wells, D. Nino, and P. R. Wyde, “Contrasting effects of type I interferon as a mucosal adjuvant for influenza vaccine in mice and humans,” Vaccine, Vol. 27, No. 39, Aug 27 2009, pp. 5344-8. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.06.084
G. Parmiani, C. Castelli, L. Pilla, M. Santinami, M. P. Colombo, and L. Rivoltini, “Opposite immune functions of GM-CSF administered as vaccine adjuvant in cancer patients,” Ann Oncol, Vol. 18, No. 2, Feb 2007, pp. 226-32. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdl158
M. Cruciani, C. Mengoli, G. Serpelloni, R. Mazzi, O. Bosco, and M. Malena, “Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor as an adjuvant for hepatitis B vaccination: a meta-analysis,” Vaccine, Vol. 25, No. 4, Jan 8 2007, pp. 709-18. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.08.015
J. T. Qiu, T. C. Chang, C. T. Lin, Y. M. Chen, F. Q. Li, Y. K. Soong, and C. H. Lai, “Novel codon-optimized GM-CSF gene as an adjuvant to enhance the immunity of a DNA vaccine against HIV-1 Gag,” Vaccine, Vol. 25, No. 2, Jan 4 2007, pp. 253-63. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.07.034
M. Yagci, K. Acar, G. T. Sucak, K. Yamac, and R. Haznedar, “Hepatitis B virus vaccine in lymphoproliferative disorders: a prospective randomized study evaluating the efficacy of granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor as a vaccine adjuvant,” Eur J Haematol, Vol. 79, No. 4, Oct 2007, pp. 292-6. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0609.2007.00912.x
R. Xu, S. Megati, V. Roopchand, A. Luckay, A. Masood, D. Garcia-Hand, M. Rosati, D. B. Weiner, B. K. Felber, G. N. Pavlakis, M. K. Sidhu, J. H. Eldridge, and M. A. Egan, “Comparative ability of various plasmid-based cytokines and chemokines to adjuvant the activity of HIV plasmid DNA vaccines,” Vaccine, Vol. 26, No. 37, Sep 2 2008, pp. 4819-29. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.06.103
P. Spearman, S. Kalams, M. Elizaga, B. Metch, Y. L. Chiu, M. Allen, K. J. Weinhold, G. Ferrari, S. D. Parker, M. J. McElrath, S. E. Frey, J. D. Fuchs, M. C. Keefer, M. D. Lubeck, M. Egan, R. Braun, J. H. Eldridge, B. F. Haynes, and L. Corey, “Safety and immunogenicity of a CTL multiepitope peptide vaccine for HIV with or without GM-CSF in a phase I trial,” Vaccine, Vol. 27, No. 2, Jan 7 2009, pp. 243-249.
J. Somani, S. Lonial, H. Rosenthal, S. Resnick, I. Kakhniashvili, and E. K. Waller, “A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of subcutaneous administration of GM-CSF as a vaccine adjuvant: effect on cellular and humoral immune responses,” Vaccine, Vol. 21, No. 3-4, Dec 13 2002, pp. 221-30. doi:10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00463-2
A. K. Wright, D. E. Briles, D. W. Metzger, and S. B. Gordon, “Prospects for use of interleukin-12 as a mucosal adjuvant for vaccination of humans to protect against respiratory pneumococcal infection,” Vaccine, Vol. 26, No. 38, Sep 8 2008, pp. 4893-903. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.06.058
J. E. Portielje, W. H. Kruit, A. J. Eerenberg, M. Schuler, A. Sparreboom, C. H. Lamers, J. W. Gratama, G. Stoter, C. Huber, and C. E. Hack, “Subcutaneous injection of interleukin 12 induces systemic inflammatory responses in humans: implications for the use of IL-12 as vaccine adjuvant,” Cancer Immunol Immunother, Vol. 54, No. 1, Jan 2005, pp. 37-43. doi:10.1007/s00262-004-0574-0
M. A. Jacobson, E. Sinclair, B. Bredt, L. Agrillo, D. Black, C. L. Epling, A. Carvidi, T. Ho, R. Bains, V. Girling, and S. P. Adler, “Safety and immunogenicity of Towne cytomegalovirus vaccine with or without adjuvant recombinant interleukin-12,” Vaccine, Vol. 24, No. 25, Jun 19 2006, pp. 5311-9. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.04.017
E. B. Schadeck, M. Sidhu, M. A. Egan, S. Y. Chong, P. Piacente, A. Masood, D. Garcia-Hand, S. Cappello, V. Roopchand, S. Megati, J. Quiroz, J. D. Boyer, B. K. Felber, G. N. Pavlakis, D. B. Weiner, J. H. Eldridge, and Z. R. Israel, “A dose sparing effect by plasmid encoded IL-12 adjuvant on a SIVgag-plasmid DNA vaccine in rhesus macaques,” Vaccine, Vol. 24, No. 21, May 22 2006, pp. 4677-87. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.10.035
H. Yamanaka, T. Hoyt, R. Bowen, X. Yang, K. Crist, S. Golden, M. Maddaloni, and D. W. Pascual, “An IL-12 DNA vaccine co-expressing Yersinia pestis antigens protects against pneumonic plague,” Vaccine, Vol. 27, No. 1, Jan 1 2009, pp. 80-7. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.10.021
H. Yamanaka, T. Hoyt, X. Yang, S. Golden, C. M. Bosio, K. Crist, T. Becker, M. Maddaloni, and D. W. Pascual, “A nasal interleukin-12 DNA vaccine coexpressing Yersinia pestis F1-V fusion protein confers protection against pneumonic plague,” Infect Immun, Vol. 76, No. 10, Oct 2008, pp. 4564-73. doi:10.1128/IAI.00581-08
J. Hedlund, B. Langer, H. B. Konradsen, and A. Ortqvist, “Negligible adjuvant effect for antibody responses and frequent adverse events associated with IL-12 treatment in humans vaccinated with pneumococcal polysaccharide,” Vaccine, Vol. 20, No. 1-2, Oct 12 2001, pp. 164-9. doi:10.1016/S0264-410X(01)00253-5
P.-Y. Perera, S. C. Derrick, K. Kolibab, F. Momoi, M. Yamamoto, S. L. Morris, T. A. Waldmann, and L. P. Perera, “A multi-valent vaccinia virus-based tuberculosis vaccine molecularly adjuvanted with interleukin-15 induces robust immune responses in mice,” Vaccine, Vol. 27, No. 15, 2009, pp. 2121-2127. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.01.132
K. Kolibab, A. Yang, S. C. Derrick, T. A. Waldmann, L. P. Perera, and S. L. Morris, “Highly persistent and effective prime/boost regimens against tuberculosis that use a multivalent modified vaccine virus Ankara-based tuberculosis vaccine with interleukin-15 as a molecular adjuvant,” Clin Vaccine Immunol, Vol. 17, No. 5, May 2010, pp. 793-801. doi:10.1128/CVI.00006-10
Y. Sui, Q. Zhu, S. Gagnon, A. Dzutsev, M. Terabe, M. Vaccari, D. Venzon, D. Klinman, W. Strober, B. Kelsall, G. Franchini, I. M. Belyakov, and J. A. Berzofsky, “Innate and adaptive immune correlates of vaccine and adjuvant-induced control of mucosal transmission of SIV in macaques,” Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, Vol. 107, No. 21, May 25 2010, pp. 9843-8. doi:10.1073/pnas.0911932107
Z. Yang, L. Wang, H. Wang, X. Shang, W. Niu, J. Li, and Y. Wu, “A novel mimovirus vaccine containing survivin epitope with adjuvant IL-15 induces long-lasting cellular immunity and high antitumor efficiency,” Mol Immunol, Vol. 45, No. 6, Mar 2008, pp. 1674-81. doi:10.1016/j.molimm.2007.10.026
S. A. Calarota, A. Dai, J. N. Trocio, D. B. Weiner, F. Lori, and J. Lisziewicz, “IL-15 as memory T-cell adjuvant for topical HIV-1 DermaVir vaccine,” Vaccine, Vol. 26, No. 40, Sep 19 2008, pp. 5188-95. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.03.067
M. P. Ramanathan, M. A. Kutzler, Y. C. Kuo, J. Yan, H. Liu, V. Shah, A. Bawa, B. Selling, N. Y. Sardesai, J. J. Kim, and D. B. Weiner, “Coimmunization with an optimized IL15 plasmid adjuvant enhances humoral immunity via stimulating B cells induced by genetically engineered DNA vaccines expressing consensus JEV and WNV E DIII,” Vaccine, Vol. 27, No. 32, Jul 9 2009, pp. 4370-80. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.01.137
R. Nagill and S. Kaur, “Enhanced efficacy and immunogenicity of 78kDa antigen formulated in various adjuvants against murine visceral leishmaniasis,” Vaccine, Vol. 28, No. 23, May 21 2010, pp. 4002-12. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.01.015
R. J. Lechleider, P. M. Arlen, K. Y. Tsang, S. M. Steinberg, J. Yokokawa, V. Cereda, K. Camphausen, J. Schlom, W. L. Dahut, and J. L. Gulley, “Safety and immunologic response of a viral vaccine to prostate- pecific antigen in combination with radiation therapy when metronomic-dose interleukin 2 is used as an adjuvant,” Clin Cancer Res, Vol. 14, No. 16, Aug 15 2008, pp. 5284-91. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-07-5162
W. M. Gwinn, S. M. Kirwan, S. H. Wang, K. A. Ashcraft, N. L. Sparks, C. R. Doil, T. G. Tlusty, L. S. Casey, S. K. Hollingshead, D. E. Briles, R. S. Dondero, A. J. Hickey, W. M. Foster, and H. F. Staats, “Effective induction of protective systemic immunity with nasally administered vaccines adjuvanted with IL-1,” Vaccine, Vol. 28, No. 42, Oct 4 2010, pp. 6901-14. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.08.006
C. Zhang, B. Wang, and M. Wang, “GM-CSF and IL-2 as adjuvant enhance the immune effect of protein vaccine against foot-and-mouth disease,” Virol J, Vol. 8, 2011, p. 7. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-8-7
A. Toubaji, S. Hill, M. Terabe, J. Qian, T. Floyd, R. M. Simpson, J. A. Berzofsky, and S. N. Khleif, “The combination of GM-CSF and IL-2 as local adjuvant shows synergy in enhancing peptide vaccines and provides long term tumor protection,” Vaccine, Vol. 25, No. 31, Aug 1 2007, pp. 5882-91. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.05.040
M. C. Aichinger, M. Ginzler, J. Weghuber, L. Zimmermann, K. Riedl, G. Schütz, E. Nagy, A. von Gabain, R. Schweyen, and T. Henics, “Adjuvating the adjuvant: Facilitated delivery of an immunomodulatory oligonucleotide to TLR9 by a cationic antimicrobial peptide in dendritic cells,” Vaccine, Vol. 29, No. 3, 2011, pp. 426-436. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.11.003
E. M. Agger, I. Rosenkrands, A. W. Olsen, G. Hatch, A. Williams, C. Kritsch, K. Lingnau, A. von Gabain, C. S. Andersen, K. S. Korsholm, and P. Andersen, “Protective immunity to tuberculosis with Ag85B-ESAT-6 in a synthetic cationic adjuvant system IC31,” Vaccine, Vol. 24, No. 26, Jun 29 2006, pp. 5452-60. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.03.072
K. Riedl, R. Riedl, A. von Gabain, E. Nagy, and K. Lingnau, “The novel adjuvant IC31 strongly improves influenza vaccine-specific cellular and humoral immune responses in young adult and aged mice,” Vaccine, Vol. 26, No. 27-28, Jun 25 2008, pp. 3461-8. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.04.029
C. G. Lee, S. Y. Choi, S. H. Park, K. S. Park, S. H. Ryu, and Y. C. Sung, “The synthetic peptide Trp-Lys- yr-Met-Val-D-Met as a novel adjuvant for DNA vaccine,” Vaccine, Vol. 23, No. 38, Sep 7 2005, pp. 4703-10. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.03.051
G. V. Hegde, E. Meyers-Clark, S. S. Joshi, and S. D. Sanderson, “A conformationally-biased, response- elective agonist of C5a acts as a molecular adjuvant by modulating antigen processing and presentation activities of human dendritic cells,” Int Immunopharmacol, Vol. 8, No. 6, Jun 2008, pp. 819-27. doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2008.01.031
E. L. Morgan, B. N. Morgan, E. A. Stein, E. L. Vitrs, M. L. Thoman, S. D. Sanderson, and J. A. Phillips, “Enhancement of in vivo and in vitro immune functions by a conformationally biased, response-selective agonist of human C5a: Implications for a novel adjuvant in vaccine design,” Vaccine, Vol. 28, No. 2, 2009, pp. 463-469. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.10.029
E. L. Morgan, M. L. Thoman, S. D. Sanderson, and J. A. Phillips, “A novel adjuvant for vaccine development in the aged,” Vaccine, Vol. 28, No. 52, 2010, pp. 8275-279. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.10.008
J. Kindrachuk, H. Jenssen, M. Elliott, R. Townsend, A. Nijnik, S. F. Lee, V. Gerdts, L. A. Babiuk, S. A. Halperin, and R. E. Hancock, “A novel vaccine adjuvant comprised of a synthetic innate defence regulator peptide and CpG oligonucleotide links innate and adaptive immunity,” Vaccine, Vol. 27, No. 34, Jul 23 2009, pp. 4662-71. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.05.094
E. Scruten, J. Kovacs-Nolan, P. J. Griebel, L. Latimer, J. Kindrachuk, A. Potter, L. A. Babiuk, S. v. D. L.-v. d. Hurk, and S. Napper, “Retro-inversion enhances the adjuvant and CpG co-adjuvant activity of host defence peptide Bac2A,” Vaccine, Vol. 28, No. 17, 2010, pp. 2945-2956. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.02.015
J. Turanek, M. Ledvina, A. Kasna, A. Vacek, V. Hribalova, J. Krejci, and A. D. Miller, “Liposomal preparations of muramyl glycopeptides as immunomodulators and adjuvants,” Vaccine, Vol. 24 Suppl 2, Apr 12 2006, pp. S2-90-1.
R. Segura-Velazquez, A. Perez-Torres, G. Rosas, A. Toledo, M. Restelli, E. Acosta, R. Corral, F. Rosetti, G. Fragoso, S. Grinstein, and E. Sciutto, “A novel synthetic adjuvant effectively enhances the immunogenicity of the influenza vaccine,” Vaccine, Vol. 24, No. 8, Feb 20 2006, pp. 1073-80. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.09.014
Y. Charoenvit, N. Goel, M. Whelan, K. S. Rosenthal, and D. H. Zimmerman, “CEL-1000--a peptide with adjuvant activity for Th1 immune responses,” Vaccine, Vol. 22, No. 19, Jun 23 2004, pp. 2368-73. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2003.11.062
P. D. Becker, S. Fiorentini, C. Link, G. Tosti, T. Ebensen, A. Caruso, and C. A. Guzman, “The HIV-1 matrix protein p17 can be efficiently delivered by intranasal route in mice using the TLR 2/6 agonist MALP-2 as mucosal adjuvant,” Vaccine, Vol. 24, No. 25, Jun 19 2006, pp. 5269-76. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.11.008
S. Borsutzky, T. Ebensen, C. Link, P. D. Becker, V. Fiorelli, A. Cafaro, B. Ensoli, and C. A. Guzman, “Efficient systemic and mucosal responses against the HIV-1 Tat protein by prime/boost vaccination using the lipopeptide MALP-2 as adjuvant,” Vaccine, Vol. 24, No. 12, Mar 15 2006, pp. 2049-56. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.11.025
A. Cataldi, T. Yevsa, D. A. Vilte, K. Schulze, M. Castro- arodi, M. Larzabal, C. Ibarra, E. C. Mercado, and C. A. Guzman, “Efficient immune responses against Intimin and EspB of enterohaemorragic Escherichia coli after intranasal vaccination using the TLR2/6 agonist MALP-2 as adjuvant,” Vaccine, Vol. 26, No. 44, Oct 16 2008, pp. 5662-7. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.07.027
J. K. Actor, S. A. Hwang, and M. L. Kruzel, “Lactoferrin as a natural immune modulator,” Curr Pharm Des, Vol. 15, No. 17, 2009, pp. 1956-73. doi:10.2174/138161209788453202
S. A. Hwang and J. K. Actor, “Lactoferrin modulation of BCG-infected dendritic cell functions,” Int Immunol, Vol. 21, No. 10, Oct 2009, pp. 1185-97. doi:10.1093/intimm/dxp084
S. A. Hwang, K. M. Wilk, M. Budnicka, M. Olsen, Y. A. Bangale, R. L. Hunter, M. L. Kruzel, and J. K. Actor, “Lactoferrin enhanced efficacy of the BCG vaccine to generate host protective responses against challenge with virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis,” Vaccine, Vol. 25, No. 37-38, Sep 17 2007, pp. 6730-43. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.07.005
S. A. Hwang, K. Wilk, M. L. Kruzel, and J. K. Actor, “A novel recombinant human lactoferrin augments the BCG vaccine and protects alveolar integrity upon infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis in mice,” Vaccine, Vol. 27, No. 23, May 18 2009, pp. 3026-34. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.03.036
T. A. Barr, J. Carlring, and A. W. Heath, “CD40 antibody as a potent immunological adjuvant: CD40 antibody provides the CD40 signal to B cells, but does not substitute for T cell help in responses to TD antigens,” Vaccine, Vol. 23, No. 26, May 16 2005, pp. 3477-82. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2004.12.025
J. Carlring, T. A. Barr, A. L. McCormick, and A. W. Heath, “CD40 antibody as an adjuvant induces enhanced T cell responses,” Vaccine, Vol. 22, No. 25-26, Sep 3 2004, pp. 3323-8. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2004.02.043
J. Liu, Q. Yu, G. W. Stone, F. Y. Yue, N. Ngai, R. B. Jones, R. S. Kornbluth, and M. A. Ostrowski, “CD40L expressed from the canarypox vector, ALVAC, can boost immunogenicity of HIV-1 canarypox vaccine in mice and enhance the in vitro expansion of viral specific CD8+ T cell memory responses from HIV-1-infected and HIV-1-uninfected individuals,” Vaccine, Vol. 26, No. 32, Jul 29 2008, pp. 4062-72. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.05.018
T. Barr, J. Carlring, C. Hatzifoti, and A. W. Heath, “Antibodies against cell surface antigens as very potent immunological adjuvants,” Vaccine, Vol. 24 Suppl 2, Apr 12 2006, pp. S2-20-1.
K. Dorgham, V. Abadie, M. Iga, O. Hartley, G. Gorochov, and B. Combadiere, “Engineered CCR5 superagonist chemokine as adjuvant in anti-tumor DNA vaccination,” Vaccine, Vol. 26, No. 26, Jun 19 2008, pp. 3252-60. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.04.003
C. E. Hioe, M. L. Visciano, R. Kumar, J. Liu, E. A. Mack, R. E. Simon, D. N. Levy, and M. Tuen, “The use of immune complex vaccines to enhance antibody responses against neutralizing epitopes on HIV-1 envelope gp120,” Vaccine, Vol. 28, No. 2, 2009, pp. 352-360. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.10.040
N. Pakravan, S. M. Hashemi, and Z. M. Hassan, “Adjuvant activity of GP96 C-terminal domain towards Her2/neu DNA vaccine is fusion direction-dependent,” Cell Stress Chaperones, Vol. 16, No. 1, Jan 2011, pp. 41-8. doi:10.1007/s12192-010-0219-5
P. O. Ilyinskii, G. Thoidis, M. Y. Sherman, and A. Shneider, “Adjuvant potential of aggregate-forming polyglutamine domains,” Vaccine, Vol. 26, No. 26, Jun 19 2008, pp. 3223-6. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.03.078
B. Jin, T. Sun, X. H. Yu, C. Q. Liu, Y. X. Yang, P. Lu, S. F. Fu, H. B. Qiu, and A. E. Yeo, “Immunomodulatory effects of dsRNA and its potential as vaccine adjuvant,” J Biomed Biotechnol, Vol. 2010, 2010, p. 690438. doi:10.1155/2010/690438
Y. F. Lau, L. H. Tang, A. W. McCall, E. E. Ooi, and K. Subbarao, “An adjuvant for the induction of potent, protective humoral responses to an H5N1 influenza virus vaccine with antigen-sparing effect in mice,” J Virol, Vol. 84, No. 17, Sep 2010, pp. 8639-49. doi:10.1128/JVI.00596-10
M. L. Salem, S. A. El-Naggar, A. Kadima, W. E. Gillanders, and D. J. Cole, “The adjuvant effects of the toll-like receptor 3 ligand polyinosinic-cytidylic acid poly (I:C) on antigen-specific CD8+ T cell responses are partially dependent on NK cells with the induction of a beneficial cytokine milieu,” Vaccine, Vol. 24, No. 24, Jun 12 2006, pp. 5119-32. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.04.010
B. Salaun, M. Greutert, and P. Romero, “Toll-like receptor 3 is necessary for dsRNA adjuvant effects,” Vaccine, Vol. 27, No. 12, 2009, pp. 1841-1847. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.01.044
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